Psychosocial Context of Delinquency 青少年犯罪的社会心理背景 From this it is readily seen that the operation of the paranoid process cannot be easily divorced from broader psychosocial influences. In a very useful study, Kaplan (1972) has pulled together and synthesized a considerable body of evidence. He has combined these into a general statement of the bases of psychosocial deviance—particularly in relationship to the genesis of antisocial tendencies for the expression of aggressive and destructive behavior. The conclusions he reaches are readily placed in conjunction with our own findings regarding the paranoid process, particularly in terms of the relationship between paranoid manifestations and their function in preserving injured narcissism and maintaining the integrity and sense of esteem of the self. 由此不难看出，偏执过程的运作不能轻易脱离更广泛的社会心理影响。在一项非常有用的研究中，卡普兰(1972)把相当多的证据集中起来并加以综合。他把这些结合成了一个关于社会心理偏差的基础的一般陈述——特别是在 攻击性和破坏性行为表达的 反社会倾向的 成因的关系上。他所得出的结论很容易与我们自己关于偏执过程的研究结果结合起来，特别是在偏执表现与它们在维护受伤的自恋和维持自体的完整性和自尊感的功能之间的关系方面。 Kaplan's model postulates that among the motivational goals of any individual are the maintenance, restoration, or attainment of positive attitudes toward the self, specifically self-esteem, as well as the avoidance of negative self-attitudes. A considerable body of empirical support is offered to this point of view by the consistent observation of associations between negative self-attitudes and specific indices of subjective distress, such as anxiety, depression, or other psychopathological responses. 卡普兰的模型假定，任何个体的动机目标都包括维持、恢复或实现对自体的正面态度，特别是自尊，以及避免负面的自体态度。对这一观点得到了大量的实验支持，因为一直观察到负面的自体态度与主观痛苦的具体指数之间的联系，如焦虑、抑郁或其他精神病理反应。 Within the psychosocial framework, Kaplan denominates three areas of antecedents of such self-attitudes. The first has to do with attitudes of other people toward the subject. The degree to which such attitudes influence self-evaluations appears to be a function of factors such as the discrepancy of self and other evaluations, the actual communication of such evaluations to the subject, and finally the importance of self-evaluating persons to the subject. Secondly, the nature of the individual self-attitudes seems to be a function of the subject's possession of certain ascribed or achieved qualities, or his success in the performance of particular behaviors where such qualities or performances are highly valued. Thirdly, the subject's self-attitude seems to be influenced by his ability to utilize controls and defenses, which serve to enhance his capacity, and to define events which may be filled with negative consequences or implications in a way that will not detract from his own sense of worth, ability, or power. Effective use of denial, avoidance and rationalization, devaluation of circumstances or objects, selectivity or standards and behaviors, or selectivity in choice of personal relationships, all may be used effectively in this regard 在社会心理框架下，卡普兰将这种自体态度的前因归纳为三个方面。第一个方面与其他人对主体的态度有关。这种态度对自体评价的影响程度似乎是下列因素的函数，比如自体评价和他人评价的差异、这种评价对主体的实际传达、最后是自体评价者对主体的重要性。第二，个体自体态度的性质似乎是下列因素的函数：主体拥有某些天生的或后边获得的品质，或他在特定行为中的成功表现，在这些行动中，这种品质或表现受到高度重视。第三，主体的自体态度似乎受到他利用 控制和防御 的能力的影响，这些控制和防御的作用是增强他的能力，并以一种不会减损他自己的价值感、能力或权力的方式来界定可能充满消极后果或影响的事件。有效地使用否认、回避和合理化、贬低环境或客体、选择性或标准和行为，或选择性地选择个体关系，在这方面都可以有效地使用。 Selection and the use of particular mechanisms or patterns of defense and their utilization in the service of preserving self-esteem seems to be a function of early childhood experiences, the range of available options in the current situation, the degree to which the situation is relatively unstructured, and the availability of social supports and reinforcements for particular defensive patterns. Thus the model suggests that individuals who have negative self-attitudes will be more likely to adopt deviant behavior patterns than individuals who have developed positive self-attitudes. 选择和使用特定的防御机制或模式以及利用这些机制或模式为维护自尊服务，似乎是以下因素的函数：早期童年经历、当前情境中可供选择的范围、情境相对非结构化的程度，以及特定防御模式 的社会支持和强化 的可用性。因此，该模型表明，具有负面自体态度的个体将比已形成正面自体态度的个体更有可能采取偏差行为模式。 Other factors contribute to this expectation. If an individual attributes the causes of his impaired sense of self-esteem to environmental influences, or if he is unable to perceive or pursue the available alternative patterns of action, which may be socially approved and may offer a reasonably high subjective probability of resulting in improvement of his self-esteem, or if he perceives alternative deviant patterns as more available or as offering a relatively higher degree of subjective probability in improving self-attitudes, the likelihood of his adopting deviant patterns of behavior increases. Deviant patterns may function to decrease the level of self-rejection in a number of ways: by the distortion of reality in the service of increasing self-approval of one's behaviors or achievements or characteristics; by attacking the validity of social norms and expectations of the system within which the individual has failed; by the avoidance of potentially self diminishing experiences; or by the assimilation or creation of new standards which the individual is capable of attaining and which thus offer him the possibility of gaining approval of others who may share the same or similar standards. The operation of such influences can be regarded as operating in a wide spectrum of deviant behaviors, including cheating, delinquency, drug addiction, alcoholism, or even suicide. 其他因素也促成了这种期望。如果一个体将其自尊受损的原因归结为环境影响，或者如果他无法察觉或追求可供选择的行动模式，而这些行动模式可能得到社会的认可，并可能为改善其自尊提供相当高的主观可能，或者如果他认为可供选择的偏差模式更容易获得，或者在改善自体态度方面提供了相对较高的主观可能，那么他采用偏差行为模式的可能性就会增加。离经叛道的模式可能以多种方式降低自体拒绝的程度：通过歪曲现实，以提高对自己行为或成就或特征的自体认可；通过攻击社会规范的有效性和个体在其中失败的系统的期望；通过避免潜在的自体减少的经验；或通过吸收或创造个体能够达到的新标准，从而为他提供 获得可能共享相同或类似标准的其他人的认可 的可能。这种影响的运作可被视为在广泛的偏差行为中运作，包括欺骗、犯罪、吸毒、酗酒，甚至自杀。 An implicit expectation in the adoption of such deviant patterns is the proposition that the adoption and persistence in particular patterns of structured psychosocial deviance will be attended by a more satisfying sense of self-esteem and self-attitudes than were effective prior to the adoption of such patterns. To the extent that the deviant pattern results in the sustaining of self-esteem, such a pattern would be correspondingly resistant to change unless its effectiveness in maintaining self-esteem should be diminished or unless the pattern itself becomes the occasion for further devaluing experiences, such as contempt, shaming, rejection by significant others, etc. 采用这种偏离模式的一个隐含的期望是这样一种主张，即采用和坚持特定的 结构化的社会心理偏离模式 将带来比采用这种模式之前 有效的更令人满意的自尊感和自体态度。只要偏离模式导致自尊的维持，这种模式就会相应地抵制改变，除非它在维持自尊方面的有效性应当减弱，或者除非这种模式本身成为进一步体验贬低的场合，如蔑视、羞辱、被重要他人拒绝等。 In applying the consideration specifically to juvenile delinquency, it can be assumed that the individual who adopts the normative standards of the adolescent delinquent subculture does so as a result of his failure to obtain positive self-evaluation according to the standards of the conventional adult culture. The more closely the delinquent identifies with the standards of the delinquent subculture, the less relevant will the conventional standards become for his own self-evaluation. This perception can be supported by data which suggest that delinquents, who identify strongly with the delinquent subculture, tend to manifest higher degrees of self-evaluation than delinquents who identify less intensely with the subcultural norms and values. 在将这一考虑具体应用于青少年犯罪时，可以假定，采用青少年犯罪亚文化的规范标准的个体，是由于他未能按照传统成人文化的标准获得积极的自体评价。犯罪者对犯罪亚文化的标准认同得越紧密，传统标准对其自体评价的意义就越小。这种看法可以得到数据的支持，数据显示，强烈认同犯罪亚文化的犯罪者，往往比不太认同亚文化规范和价值的犯罪者表现出更高的自体评价程度。 Turning to the relationship between social deviance and forms of aggressive behavior, Kaplan observes that the literature on aggression seems to be consistent with the view that overt expression of aggression, even in forms of physical violence and destructiveness, shares with other modes of psychosocial deviance the characteristic of serving as a response to a preexisting history of more or less intense self-devaluation. Such aggression also serves important functions in reducing the severity of self-rejecting attitudes. The backgrounds of individuals who characteristically employ aggressive patterns of behavior suggest that, regardless of the cultural context or mode of aggressive response, such individuals are more likely to have previously experienced self-devaluing circumstances than individuals who are not prone to the use of such destructive patterns. 关于社会偏差与攻击行为形式之间的关系，Kaplan认为，关于攻击性的文献似乎符合这样的观点，即攻击性的公开表达，甚至是身体暴力和破坏性的形式，与其他社会心理偏差模式有一个共同的特点，即作为对先前存在的或多或少强烈的自体评价历史的一种反应。这种攻击性也在减少自体拒绝态度的严重性方面发挥重要作用。采用攻击性行为模式的个体的背景表明，无论文化背景或攻击性反应模式如何，这类人比那些不容易使用这种破坏性模式的人更有可能以前经历过自体贬低的环境。 Thus the suggested model of psychosocial deviance indicates that aggressive response patterns are more or less functional in reducing the severity of self-rejecting attitudes as well as the subjective distress associated with them. Data in support of such a conclusion can be found in studies of criminal assault, preschizophrenic aggression, urban revolt, school rebelliousness and even aggressive responses in clinically normal subjects. In regard to urban revolt, for example, civil disorder may become the vehicle for increasing self-esteem and self-acceptance. Even when such destructive outbursts are precipitated in the name of moral objectives such as the civil rights movements, many of those who are caught up in the intensity of the destructive outburst have no moral conviction and their involvement seems to serve primarily personal psychodynamic frustrations. Their need may be to destroy, to rebel, to seek punishment, to join themselves to a particular group, or to secure attention, or even to satisfy their own need to be victimized and martyred by injury or imprisonment. Destructive behavior thus may be seen as a form of acting-out regardless of the objectives of the cause with which it is associated—whether it be civil rights action, attaining of basic human rights, or even fanatical patriotism. 因此，所建议的社会心理偏差模型表明，攻击性反应模式在降低自体拒绝态度的严重性 以及与之相关的主观痛苦方面 或多或少都有作用。在对刑事攻击、精神分裂症前的攻击行为、城市反抗、学校叛逆甚至是临床正常受试者的攻击性反应的研究中，都可以找到支持这种结论的数据。以城市反抗为例，内乱可能成为增强自尊和自体接纳的工具。即使这种破坏性的爆发是以道德目标的名义，如民权运动的名义催生的，许多陷入破坏性爆发强度的人也没有道德信念，他们的参与似乎主要是为了个体心理动力学的挫折。他们的需要可能是破坏、反叛、寻求惩罚、把自己加入到一个特定的群体中，或者是为了获得关注，甚至是为了满足自己被伤害或监禁而成为受害者和殉道者的需要。因此，破坏性行为可以被视为一种付诸行动，而不管其目的是什么——无论是民权行动，还是实现基本人权，甚至是狂热的爱国主义。 Whether the intention of such individuals is to satisfy moral convictions or to satisfy inner needs, they share the common motive to gain greater self-acceptance either by avoiding the self-undermining circumstances, or by identifying with acceptable and worthy values, thereby gaining some sense of worth for themselves, or by attacking a social structure or organization to which they attribute the basis for their self-devaluing and rejecting attitudes. Thus the participation in mob violence by blacks or students may provide them with a sense of power which serves to minimize their feelings of lack of worth and provide them a basis for increasing self-acceptance. 无论这些人的意图是为了满足道德信念还是满足内心的需要，他们都有一个共同的动机，即通过避免自体损害的环境，或通过认同可接受的和有价值的价值观，从而为自己获得某种价值感，或通过攻击他们认为是其自体贬低和拒绝态度的基础的社会结构或组织，来获得更大的自体接受。因此，黑人或学生参与暴民暴力可能会给他们带来一种权力感，这种权力感有助于最大限度地减少他们缺乏价值感的感觉，并为他们提供增加自体接受的基础。 Kaplan also points to important cultural determinants of the tendency to adopt aggressive response patterns. Thus individuals who have been raised in cultural or subcultural settings, in which the external expression of aggression is either tolerated or encouraged, may be more likely to manifest aggressive responses under stress than other individuals who may have been reared in other cultural settings in which such expression is disapproved or prohibited. The contrast between black and Jewish subcultures in the United States has been described in this regard. The black culture is a relatively dispersive and aggression-tolerating culture, which is characterized by the encouragement of more independent and aggressive assertion and a pervasive belief in the natural aggressiveness and undependability of other persons. In parts of the black community the expression of hostility and even actual assault is a frequent part of daily experience. In the Jewish culture, by way of contrast, there is a more cohesive and aggression-inhibiting quality, which is characterized by a strong emphasis on group life and participation, mutual aid and support, family rituals and closeness among groups of relatives. There is also a strong prohibition against physical aggression. 卡普兰还指出了采取攻击性反应模式的重要文化决定因素。因此，那些在对外的攻击性表达是被容忍或鼓励的 文化或亚文化环境中长大的人，比在这种表达是不被认可或禁止的文化环境中长大的人，更有可能在压力下表现出攻击性反应的可能。美国的黑人亚文化和犹太亚文化的对比在这方面已经有所描述。黑人文化是一种相对分散的、容忍侵略的文化，其特点是鼓励更多的独立和攻击性的主张，普遍认为他人具有天然的攻击性和不可依赖性。在部分黑人社区，敌意的表达甚至实际的攻击是日常经验中经常出现的。相比之下，在犹太文化中，有一种更具有凝聚力和抑制攻击性的特质，其特点是非常强调群体生活和参与、互助和支持、家庭仪式和亲属群体之间的亲密关系。此外，还强烈禁止人身攻击。 Thus, to the extent that a culture positively sanctions the external expression of aggression, the effect is to legitimize the expression of such aggressive impulses for the individual. In consequence of such legitimization, the external expression of aggression is more highly probable. Such cultural attitudes are often transmitted within the family context. If cultural attitudes endorsing the expression of aggression are transmitted to the child in the course of early parent-child interactions, they are more likely to find expression than if they are not so transmitted. Thus the frequent association between aggressive behavior and familial contexts which tolerate a high degree of aggression can be more readily understood. 因此，如果一种文化正面认可攻击的外部表达，其效果就是使个体的这种攻击冲动的表达合法化。由于这种合法化，攻击的外部表达就更有可能。这种文化态度往往是在家庭环境中传播的。如果认可攻击性表达的文化态度在早期亲子互动的过程中传递给孩子，那么这些攻击会比没有传递这种文化态度的更有可能找到表达方式。因此，攻击性行为与容忍高度攻击性的家庭环境之间的频繁联系可以更容易理解。 Another important determinant of the tendency to aggressive display has to do with social position. Individuals are more likely to express aggression if they occupy social roles in which such aggression is socially endorsed. An individual may occupy a number of social roles whose expectations may either reinforce or modify the propensity for aggressive expression. One such important social role is that related to sex. Social sexual roles are frequently associated with prescriptions and expectations for the expression of aggressive behavior. Certainly in Western societies aggressive behavior is regarded as more appropriate to the male than to the female role. Aggressive behavior in female children is often punished disproportionately. The socially endorsed view that aggressive behavior is more appropriate in males is learned early in the developmental process so that the suppression of overt aggressive responses is more frequently found in girls than in boys. 攻击性表现倾向的另一个重要决定因素与社会地位有关。如果个体所处的社会角色使这种攻击性得到社会认可，他们就更有可能表现出攻击性。一个体可能占据一些社会角色，这些社会角色的期望可能会加强或改变攻击性表现的倾向。其中一个重要的社会角色是与性有关的角色。社会性角色常常与对攻击性行为的表达的规定和期望相关联。当然，在西方社会中，攻击性行为被认为更适合男性而非女性角色。女性儿童的攻击性行为往往受到不相称的惩罚。社会认可的观点是，攻击性行为更适合男性，这种观点是在发展过程的早期就学会的，因此，女孩比男孩更经常地出现抑制公开攻击性反应的现象。 Religious status is another important social role which may have an inhibitory effect on the expression of aggression. This conflict is frequently found in the attitudes of militant blacks. Religiosity and militancy tend to be inversely related in black groups. This seems to obtain regardless of educational level, age, geographic region, sex, or religious denomination. A religious rationale frequently offers support to the relatively passive acceptance of the status quo. Thus refraining from militant action may be a way of submitting oneself to God's will. The religious perspective also offers recompense to the downtrodden by the promises of the afterlife and thus tends to undercut the necessity for seeking self-assertion or rebelliousness in this life. These religious alternatives may serve as more available channels for the enhancing of self-esteem than the more militant and destructive alternatives. 宗教地位是另一个重要的社会角色，它可能对攻击性的表达产生抑制作用。这种冲突经常出现在好斗的黑人的态度中。在黑人群体中，宗教信仰和好斗性往往成反比关系。这似乎不分教育水平、年龄、地理区域、性别或宗教派别。宗教理由常常为相对被动地接受现状提供支持。因此，不采取激进的行动可能是顺从神的意志的一种方式。宗教的观点也为受压迫者提供了来世的承诺的补偿，因此往往削弱了在今生寻求自体主张或反叛的必要性。这些宗教选择可能比更激进和更具破坏性的选择更能成为提高自尊的渠道。 However, even when aggressive behavior may be sanctioned by a particular culture or the expectations of particular social roles, such behavior may not be perceived as appropriate in a particular social context. Thus the expression of male aggressiveness may be appropriate in cultural terms, but it may not be appropriate in the immediate context of interaction with a woman. Aggression is more likely to be expressed when the behavior is perceived as appropriate to the context of the immediate social relationship. The perception of relative power within such a relationship may also play a role. Aggression is more likely in a social relationship in which one party does not perceive himself as dependent on the other for need satisfaction. It could also be the case if he perceived himself as possessing relatively greater power in the relation, or if he perceived the other party as being incapable or unwilling to retaliate. The tendency to act aggressively can be strongly influenced by the probability of retaliation. Consequently, the masochistic tendency to react to aggressive onslaughts by a pattern of defeat and submission can contribute to the probability of further attack by the aggressor. The need to victimize thus can be fed and encouraged by the availability of the victim. 然而，即使攻击性行为可能受到特定文化或特定社会角色期望的认可，但在特定的社会背景下，这种行为可能被认为是不恰当的。因此，男性攻击性的表达在文化上可能是适当的，但在与女性互动的直接环境中可能是不适当的。当行为被认为适合于眼前的社会关系背景时，攻击性更有可能被表达出来。在这种关系中，对相对权力的认识也可能起作用。在社会关系中，如果一方认为自己并不依赖另一方来满足需要，那么攻击行为更有可能发生。如果他认为自己在这种关系中拥有相对更大的权力，或者他认为对方没有能力或不愿意报复，也可能出现这种情况。攻击性行为的倾向会受到报复可能的强烈影响。因此，以失败和屈服的模式对攻击性的进攻作出反应 的受虐倾向，可以促使攻击者进一步攻击的可能性。因此，加害的需要可以因受害者的存在而得到满足和鼓励。